2 - Planning, Design, Construction & Landscape
New golf course developments or renovations must consider site suitability factors. All factors must be carefully considered during planning and design to insure development of a viable and sustainable project.
This document is not meant as a blanket standardization of golf development and maintenance. All courses are different in their location and maintenance level; the approach outlined in this guidance is general and may not be applicable to all situations. Connecticut is an ecologically diverse area with courses in mountains, adjacent to rivers, in farmland, in urban settings and on the coastlines. Utilization of BMP guidelines provide a framework for good decision-making through each phase of a project.
The construction phase for a new course or renovation project poses the greatest risk for ecosystem alteration. Facilities should be designed and constructed to maximize sustainability and energy efficiencies. By utilizing BMPs for planning, design, scheduling, and construction, golf facilities may be constructed and maintained with minimal impact to sensitive resources and associated buffers.
Regulatory Considerations
Federal, state, and local permitting may be required prior to initiating construction. It is important to seek the advice of consultants familiar with permitting during the planning phase to determine what regulations may be impacted. This may involve a review of the project site to determine if survey and mapping of any jurisdictional areas is required.
During planning, the project scope and or limits of work may be adjusted to eliminate or shorten the permitting process. The permits necessary for construction will vary considerably based on the location and scope of the proposed improvements. For new course projects, the first determination should be if the property is locally zoned for a golf course development, as the lack of appropriate zoning can stop a project or severally lengthen the permitting timeline. A new course project will then be subject to all environmental regulation permits for the locality, such as a general environmental review, water withdrawal and wetland impacts, to name but a few. For renovation projects, an early on-site meeting with an environmental consultant or the local conservation agent can help to identify the extent of permitting, if any are required.
Permits from local, state and federal agencies typically include a significant number of general and project specific conditions that must be followed to insure acceptance of the work upon completion. Orders of Conditions imposed by permit authorities are to be followed during construction, therefore potential contractors should be provided copies of the approved permit plans and Order of Conditions during bidding of the work. Compliance monitoring should be instituted and enforced by the course owner. Compliance monitoring is generally done by the course Superintendent or the consultants who assisted with permitting.
Reference for information about obtaining a construction stormwater permit; registration is required a minimum of 60 days prior to commencement of planned construction:
https://portal.ct.gov/DEEP/Water-Regulating-and-Discharges/Stormwater/Construction-Stormwater-GP
Wetlands
Prior to commencement of planning, the boundaries and buffer zones of any wetlands, vernal pools, coastal zones, water bodies, intermittent streams and rivers should be identified, flagged and mapped in accordance with local, Connecticut, and federal regulations because activities taking place within these boundaries (and buffer zones) may require permits. Connecticut has rules which protect such water bodies from loss and degradation. This protection is achieved through regulation of draining, dredging, clearing and filling within or in proximity to the wetlands.
The regulations include an authorization process implemented in close coordination with the federal government through the Army Corps of Engineers, state-specific information:
https://www.nae.usace.army.mil/Missions/Regulatory/State-General-Permits/Connecticut-General-Permit/
BMPs dictate that a professional consultant be utilized to determine if permitting may be needed and to assist with design of the project to reduce impacts. In some cases, the scope of a project can be changed to eliminate work in a regulated area. If not, the design may be altered to reduce impacts or generate other environmental improvements.
Floodplains
Most activities associated with construction or renovation, including grading and filling, within the 100-year floodplain zone will likely require a permit issued by the local and/or Connecticut DEEP. Regulations have been enacted to reduce the potential for downstream or coastal flooding. For floodplains adjacent to rivers and streams, filling an area that floods will likely not be approved unless a compensatory amount of ground level lowering is made at the same elevation in a nearby area. A goal of no net loss of floodplain area is desired.
Erosion & Sediment Control
A goal of any project should be the elimination of sediment in runoff prior to it leaving the project site and entering a waterway or wetland area. Connecticut and the federal government have implemented erosion and sediment control programs to control sediment-laden runoff from the exposed ground of construction sites. Regulations establish criteria and procedures for erosion and sediment control in Connecticut, and it could be even more regulated by municipality. Such regulations enhance erosion and sediment control practices, improve water quality of construction runoff and reduce negative impacts of sediment on drainage pipes, wetlands and adjacent waterways. Reducing sediment from runoff assists in water quality restoration efforts of streams, rivers, and water impoundments.
Information on Connecticut’s Erosion and Sediment Program:
https://portal.ct.gov/DEEP/Water/Soil-Erosion-and-Sediment-Control-Guidelines/Guidelines-for-Soil-Erosion-and-Sediment-Control
https://portal.ct.gov/DEEP/Water/Soil-Erosion-and-Sediment-Control-Guidelines/CT-Guidelines-on-Erosion-and-Sediment-Control---Errata-Sheet
Water Management
Golf courses are perceived as using a lot of water. Many states, including Connecticut, regulate the amount of water a course can use for irrigation, and the source of that water. Water Diversion Permits are required for most golf courses in Connecticut.
Connecticut water diversion permit information:
https://portal.ct.gov/DEEP/Permits-and-Licenses/Factsheets-Inland-Water/Water-Diversion-Fact-Sheet
Withdrawals of surface water or groundwater exceeding 50,000 gallons per day which were not registered as of 1983 are required to have diversion permits. Registrations or permits are not required for water supplied by a public water utility; these registrations or permits are held by the utility.
Regulators may require that the course utilize degraded water, or limit the amount of water taken from wells, streams or lakes. For some courses that lack their own supply, the only option is to purchase costly municipal water. These requirements can severely impact the economic feasibility of a golf project.
Rare and Endangered Species and Habits
In addition to identifying wetlands and floodplains before intensive planning, the course should check with the state to determine if there are any state listed species or habitats of special concern in potential proximity to the project site. Their presence may severely limit goals and objectives for the project.
The Natural Diversity Data Base maps represent approximate locations of endangered, threatened, and special concern species and significant natural communities in Connecticut, referenced at:
https://portal.ct.gov/DEEP/Endangered-Species/Natural-Diversity-Data-Base-Maps
A full list of rare and endangered species for the State of Connecticut can be found at:
https://www.fws.gov/endangered/map/ct-info.html
https://portal.ct.gov/DEEP/Endangered-Species/Endangered-Species-Listings/Endangered-Threatened--Special-Concern-Species
Early engagement among developers, designers, local community groups, and permitting agencies is essential to designing and constructing a golf facility that minimizes environmental impact and meets the approval process.
Planning
Proper planning will minimize expenses resulting from unforeseen construction requirements. Thorough planning provides opportunities to maximize/integrate environmentally favorable characteristics into the property.
The implementation of a golf course project will typically benefit from the use of professional consultants familiar with similar requirements. The consultants needed will depend on the scope and complexity of the proposed work and the constraints present at the project site. Most projects commence with the hiring of a qualified golf course architect, a civil engineer and an environmental consultant. For most renovation projects, this may be the extent of consultants required for planning.
The first step in planning is development of an accurate existing conditions plan identifying property boundaries, topography, vegetation limits, roads, wetlands and other jurisdictional areas. A detailed base plan is a critical tool in planning a project to avoid negative environmental impacts and to determine the feasibility of achieving project goals. The development of a constraints plan, along with identification of a suitable water source (for new courses) may determine that a site is unsuitable for the intended golf project before expensive planning and permitting is begun. Determine if the site is within a public water supply watershed or aquifer protection area.
Once the suitability is confirmed through generation of preliminary concept plans and cost estimates, a team is generally assembled to guide the project. The golf course architect and civil engineer may be helpful in assembling the permitting team. Professional, experienced judgement is crucial when applying BMPs in the planning, design and construction phases of the project.
An experienced golf course superintendent is integral to the planning process for any golf project. For course renovation projects, with their extensive knowledge of the site, they can assist in determining the most suitable design and can inform the design team of issues that may impact maintenance of the course or player enjoyment of the facility.
The superintendent's knowledge of the BMPs and their direct participation in planning and construction greatly affect the success of the project.
Best Management Practices
Assemble a qualified team with expertise in golf development and environmental permitting.
Determine objectives and complete a feasibility study of the project; evaluate whether the needs are feasible given existing resources.
Consideration should be given to the cost of the work and the ability to pay for it, the environmental impacts, availability of water for irrigation, energy demands and access to a suitable power supply, cost and availability of golf materials (such as root zone mix or bunker sand), and governmental regulatory requirements and restrictions.
Prior to commencement of planning, boundaries and buffer zones of wetlands, vernal pools, coastal zones, water bodies, intermittent streams and rivers should be identified, flagged and mapped in accordance with local, Connecticut, and federal regulations because activities taking place within these boundaries (and buffer zones) may require permits.
Contact the water supplier seeking suggestions to comply with water quality standards and BMPs so watersheds and/or aquifers are protected.
Select an appropriate site that can achieve the needs of stakeholders; identify strengths and weakness of the selected site.
Identify rare, protected, endangered, or threatened plant or animal species on the site. For an updated list, reference: https://www.fws.gov/endangered/map/ct-info.html
Wetlands
Wetlands act as filters for both pollutant removal and as nurseries and habitat for many species of birds, insects, fish, reptiles, amphibians and other aquatic organisms. The biological activity of plants, fish, animals, insects, and especially bacteria and fungi in a healthy, diverse wetland is the recycling factory of our ecosystem. Wetland areas are generally described as primarily saturated soils with a plant community that is specific to this soil condition.
Connecticut considers wetlands as “waters of the state,” a designation that carries significant legal ramifications. Furthermore, permitting requirements for wetlands can have multiple overlapping jurisdictions of federal, state, and local agencies. At the federal level alone, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACOE), EPA, U.S Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), and maritime agencies may all be involved. Connecticut inlands wetlands permitting generally takes place at the municipal level (delegated statutory authority from the State). Wetlands boundaries are field located by qualified specialists who take soil borings and review the plants to make the determination.
Prior to commencement of planning, the boundaries and buffer zones of any wetlands, vernal pools, coastal zones, water bodies, intermittent streams and rivers should be identified, flagged and mapped in accordance with local, state and federal regulations because activities taking place within these boundaries (and buffer zones) may require permits. Connecticut has rules which protect such water bodies from loss and degradation. This protection is achieved through the regulation of draining, dredging, clearing and filling within or in proximity to the wetlands.
https://portal.ct.gov/DEEP/Water/Watershed-Management/CTs-Watershed-Management-Program
https://portal.ct.gov/DEEP/Water/Wetlands/Connecticut-Wetlands
BMPs dictate that a professional consultant be utilized to determine if permitting may be needed and to assist with design of the project to reduce impacts. In some cases, the scope of a project can be changed to eliminate work in a regulated area. If not, the design may be altered to reduce impacts or generate other environmental improvements.
Best Management Practices
Ensure that proper permitting has been obtained before disturbing any tidal or non-tidal wetland or the regulated buffer zone.
For any type of work that would involve wetlands, reference state and municipal information, including the Inland Wetlands and Watercourses Act (IWWA) at: https://portal.ct.gov/DEEP/Water/Inland-Wetlands/Inland-Wetlands-and-Watercourses and https://portal.ct.gov/DEEP/Permits-and-Licenses/Land-and-Water-Resource-Division-LWRD-Applications
Ensure that wetlands have been properly delineated by a professional consultant and approved by the regulatory agency before working in and around any wetlands.
Drainage
Adequate drainage is necessary for establishment and growth of healthy grass. A high-quality BMP plan for drainage addresses the containment of runoff, adequate buffer zones, and filtration techniques in the design and construction process to achieve acceptable water quality. Drainage of the golf course features is only as good as the system’s integrity. Damaged, improperly installed, or poorly maintained drainage systems will result in inferior performance that negatively impacts play and increases risks to water quality.
Best Management Practices
When constructing drainage systems, pay close attention to engineering details such as subsoil preparation, slopes, backfilling and placement of drainage gravel.
Surface water runoff from tees, greens and intensively managed fairways and internal golf course drains should not drain directly into an open body of water or protected wetland but should discharge through pretreatment zones (such as grass swales or retention basins) and/or vegetative buffers to help remove nutrients and sediments.
The drainage system should be routinely inspected to ensure proper function.Post development flow rates should be equal to or less than predevelopment conditions. Where extensive clearing occurs or impervious surface is added, this will require the installation of water retention components that slow the release of water from the site.
A good design will meet the needs of the stakeholders, protect the location's environmental resources and be economically sustainable.
Design
It is important to establish clear and achievable goals and objectives at the commencement of any proposed project. The professional team can assist the course owner or developer in refining the goals and objectives by providing concept plans and cost estimates for work in the preliminary phase of design. This information will help to determine what changes are appropriate for the site, the financial feasibility of paying for the work and the anticipated schedule for implementation. Although the process of developing goals and objectives varies depending on the complexity of the proposed work, projects are most successful when a clear scope of work is defined and thoughtfully implemented. If necessary, the design should address the following site issues:
Environmental Impacts
The design should avoid or minimize impacts to sensitive environmental issues that may have been identified during the site review and preliminary planning phase. When impacts are unavoidable, the design should identify the level of impact and address how future course use and maintenance will be undertaken to lessen negative impacts.
Wetlands and Streams
When incorporated into a golf course design, wetlands should be maintained as preserves and separated from highly managed turf areas with native vegetation or structural buffers. Constructed or disturbed wetlands may need to be permitted to be an integral part of the stormwater management system. Boundaries for wetlands are field located by qualified specialists who take soil borings and review the plants to make the determination. Proposed work adjacent to streams and rivers is also highly regulated.
The State of Connecticut regulates any activity within or in proximity to the wetland boundary. This regulated buffer zone will vary depending on the wetland, but any work (clearing, filling or dredging) within 100-feet of a suspected wetland or stream should be reviewed with an environmental consultant to determine if permits will be required.
More information on Connecticut wetlands:
https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/ct/soils/?cid=nrcs142p2_011148
https://portal.ct.gov/DEEP/Water/Wetlands/Connecticut-Wetlands
https://portal.ct.gov/DEEP/Water/Inland-Wetlands/How-Are-Inland--Wetlands-and-Watercourses--Defined
Floodplains
A golf course can be a compatible use of a floodplain zone, depending on the frequency and severity of flooding. When persistent floods result in course closures, turf loss and significant sediment removal and bunker repair then use of the floodplain for golf may not be sustainable without improvements. Where raising of features is proposed to make them less susceptible to floods, the volume of fill installed must be balanced by lowering an equal volume of nearby ground at the same elevation to compensate for the loss in flood zone volume. Regulators will seek to insure there is no net loss in floodplain area on the site.
Stormwater Management
Stormwater management planning is necessary to ensure sediment controls are in place during construction and to make sure that runoff from the course doesn't impact adjacent properties and waters. Projects are required to maintain or even reduce the volume of stormwater leaving a site. Good drainage is the primary tenet of good golf design. Techniques that manage and conserve water should be adopted into the design. Methods of stormwater management include infiltration chambers that allow water to better enter the ground and recharge aquifers, retention basins that slow the flow of water off the property during heavy rain events while also trapping sediments, installation of swales with check dams to slow runoff, installation of erosion control barriers and use of mulch on seeded areas to assist with germination without soil erosion, and planting native aquatic species within the stormwater treatment system will aid in nutrient uptake. Also, locating the constructed stormwater systems in areas prone to sunlight will allow for UV degradation of chemicals such as pesticides/herbicides and fertilizers that may be applied to the course. The Connecticut Stormwater Quality Manual provides guidance on measures to protect Connecticut water bodies from adverse impacts of post-construction stormwater runoff: https://portal.ct.gov/DEEP/Water-Regulating-and-Discharges/Stormwater/Stormwater-Manual
Surface Drainage
Good surface drainage is the most reliable method for removal of water from course play areas. Where the ground is very flat, subsurface drainage may be needed to assist in expedient removal. Where the ground is steep, reduction in watersheds through installation of berms and interceptor swales, along with sub-surface piping and drain inlets, are advantageous to slow surface runoff and lessen soil erosion. Use of natural water conveyance systems, such as streams or ditches should be considered as they improve water quality, provide habitat, and can be a strategic element. In general, for turf areas to achieve sufficient surface drainage, putting surfaces should be tilted at no less than one percent (1%) slope and fairways and roughs no less than two percent (2%). Turf relies on adequate drainage to remain healthy and disease free.
Sub-Surface Drainage
Underground gravity pipe systems are typically used in conjunction with surface drainage to remove water from the turf. Underground piping can move water more quickly than surface drainage and is utilized in a variety of ways. When perforated pipe is installed in a trench with gravel or sand, the objective is generally, to remove water in saturated soil conditions.
Best Management Practices
Involve a qualified golf course superintendent/project manager at the beginning of the design process to integrate sustainable maintenance practices in the development, maintenance, and operation of the course.
Design the proposed changes to minimize or eliminate alteration of sensitive existing native landscapes and retain natural site characteristics. The plans should review alternate designs to determine the concept plan that best meets the objectives with the least disturbance.
Consider implementing increased plant diversity into the site to improve habitats.
Design out-of-play areas to retain or restore existing native vegetation where possible. Nuisance and invasive plants should be removed and replaced with native species that are adapted to that particular site. Managing invasive plants will require ongoing maintenance.
Consider potential wear patterns in turf areas and create adequate space for ingress/egress at greens, tees, fairways and bunkers.
Define play and non-play maintenance boundaries.
Greens, Fairways, and Tees
Select a location that has adequate sunlight to meet plant specific needs and provides sufficient drainage, or design site improvements to reduce shade and improve drainage characteristics.
Choose a green size and enough hole locations that is large enough to accommodate traffic and play damage, but not so large that it is not sustainable with the available resources.
For tees, select a size large enough to accommodate traffic and divot recovery. Par-three tees typically need more square footage than par-four and par-five tees.
For fairways consider using well drained soil or even manufactured soils to promote soil drainage, health turf and firm playing conditions.
Select an appropriate and local root-zone material that meets USGA established material protocols. More information from the USGA may be found here:
https://www.usga.org/content/usga/home-page/articles/2018/02/decades-of-research-fuel-new-specs-for-putting-greens.html
https://www.usga.org/course-care/digitalcollections/creating-usga-putting-green.html
Greens should be irrigated separately from surrounding turf.
Select certified turf cultivars based on an evaluation of the site and climate conditions.
Bunkers
Consider placement of bunkers in relation to circulation patterns at greens so as not to concentrate turf wear, while keeping with golf course design considerations.
Consider the number, size, construction components, and style of sand bunkers as they relate to resources available for daily maintenance.
Be aware of bunker design as it relates to cost of construction and future maintenance. Make sure bunkers have suitable machine entry and exit points.
Select the proper color, size, and shape of bunker sand that meets the site requirements, course maintenance level, and sustainability goals.
Reference additional bunker BMPs in Cultural Practices section
Development of clear and thoughtful plans and specifications can minimize environmental impact, help to avoid costly changes during construction, and will assist those involved with responding to potential unforeseen challenges.
Construction
Construction Documents
Prior to starting construction, it is important to develop construction plans that clearly communicate scope of work to ensure that all parties understand the project. Construction Plans are typically created by the Golf Architect, Engineer and Irrigation Designer. All critical data from the environmental resource inventory as well as key notes regarding construction processes should be included in the construction documents, as well as any conditions imposed in the permitting process. Documents should include any sediment and erosion control or stormwater management plans that were established in design. Challenges often arise in construction that were not foreseen in planning and design. Proper planning can reduce the number of issues, but it is best if the responsible contractor has significant experience with golf course renovation or new construction. A well-qualified contractor will be familiar with environmentally sound construction methods and be a team member who can assist in the successful completion of the project.
Construction
Construction should begin with the project team (superintendent, consultants, and owner's representatives) conducting a pre-construction meeting with the contractor(s) to review construction protocols. This meeting is important to define lines of communication, review the scope of work, review schedule, review methods for reducing environmental impacts and for the contractor(s) to become familiar with any permit requirements. Any resource areas impacted by the project should be clearly marked out prior to the meeting, and the meeting should include a field review of these areas and discussion of permit conditions impacting construction in, or adjacent to, those areas.
The golf course architect, engineer, irrigation designer and other key consultants should remain involved through the construction phase to ensure plans and specifications are being followed and permit conditions being met. The consultant's role in construction should be defined at the start of work.
During construction the site should be kept as stable as possible to reduce erosion. For large renovation and new course projects, the contractor should attempt to limit the amount of disturbed area at one time, which may require completing and stabilizing a portion of the site prior to starting on a new area. On smaller projects, rather than phasing, the best method to prevent environmental impacts may be a narrow construction window. The construction schedule and work limitations should be tailored to each site and project. The emphasis during construction must be on performing the work with quality and care to minimize the potential for future problems.
Construction Techniques
Sound construction techniques include those processes and practices that control soil erosion and stormwater runoff. Such techniques include installation of erosion control barriers prior to any land disturbance; locating of construction staging and fueling operations at least two-hundred feet (200') from any water body, wetland or sensitive area; checking barriers prior to a predicted rainfall and removing excess siltation and repairing barriers immediately following a storm; and protection of drain inlets with gravel and silt fabric. These are just a few of the procedures used.
Construction Monitoring
The contractor, owner's representative or a hired consultant should be responsible for monitoring the construction process and providing any reports required by project permits. The level of diligence invested in monitoring can significantly influence the environmental and financial sustainability and viability of the project.
Best Management Practices
Conduct a pre-construction conference with stakeholders.
Use a qualified golf course contractor, such as a member of the Golf Course Builders Association of America, or one with significant local golf course construction experience. Both certified and non-certified members and companies can be found in the links below:
The article link below has some helpful information on levels of insurance policies that the contractor should have, based on the size of the project, and/or bonds that could be required during the bidding process. Bonds are more common with municipal bids, but any course could require them.
Construction should be scheduled to maximize turfgrass establishment and site drainage.
Use environmentally sound construction techniques.
Use soil stabilization techniques to minimize soil erosion and maximize sediment containment.
Provide monitoring of the work. Maintain a construction progress report and communicate the report to the proper permitting agencies.
Schedule construction and turf establishment to allow for the most efficient progress of the work, while optimizing environmental conservation and resource management.
Temporary construction components and siltation barriers should be built in a way that minimizes environmental impacts. They should be reviewed before and after any rain event and repairs made where damage has occurred.
Erosion and Sediment Control
Sediment is defined as loose particles of sand, silt and clay carried and deposited by wind or water. Sediment most often occurs when heavy rain or irrigation flows over an area of exposed soil causing particles to be picked up by the moving water and deposited off site. Sediment dispersal can also be caused by the wind when the exposed soil is dry and can be blown. Sediment and eroded soils that reach surface waters can degrade water quality by increasing turbidity. The turbid waters can harm aquatic plants and impair the habitat for fish, shellfish and reptiles. The sediment may settle out, thereby reducing the volume of the water body and further impacting aquatic life. In addition, soil contaminants such as pesticides and excess nutrients may be picked up and transported with the eroding soil. These issues are of special concern to any course located adjacent to open water, such as ponds, lakes, streams and rivers. Protection of these areas is critical to a successful project. Good erosion and sediment control are among the most important components of the design, construction and grow-in of a project.
A stormwater pollution prevention plan may be required for projects that expose the soil. Sediment control requirements may include the mapping of slopes greater than fifteen percent (15%) or the determination of locations of highly erodible soils. Methods used to reduce sediment runoff may include the establishment of vegetative buffer strips, construction of interceptor swales that empty into detention basins, use of riprap to slow runoff and settle out sediment and the installation of erosion control barriers. Reference the 2004 Connecticut Stormwater Quality Manual for specific BMPs related to stormwater quality: https://portal.ct.gov/DEEP/Water-Regulating-and-Discharges/Stormwater/Stormwater-Manual
The extent of the protections will depend on the area of work and the potential for soil movement. Project regulators will often require submittal of a narrative describing how erosion and sediment control measures will be integrated into the stormwater management strategy and a sequence of construction that describes how the work will occur to minimize potential sediment issues. Adhering to the planning principles should result in development that better fits existing site conditions and reduces both the extent and duration of soil disturbance during construction
Best Management Practices
Develop a working knowledge of erosion and sediment control management. Connecticut has specifications including types of acceptable structures, materials, and design features.
Develop and implement strategies to effectively control sediment, minimize the loss of topsoil, protect water resources, and reduce disruption to wildlife, plant species, and designed environmental resource areas.
Integrate hydro-mulching, erosion blankets or straw mulch into the seeding process to enhance soil stabilization. Avoid using hay as mulch which may introduce unwanted weed seeds that may become a future problem.
Check and repair erosion control barriers after every rain event.
Consider limiting the area of disturbance at one time. Finish and stabilize one area before starting another area.
Surface Water: Stormwater, Ponds, Lakes
Stormwater is the conveying force behind nonpoint source pollution. Care must be taken to ensure that the golf course doesn't contribute to pollution of water bodies, especially during construction.
Controlling stormwater on a golf course is more than preventing the flooding of facilities and play areas. In addition to controlling the amount and rate of water leaving the course, stormwater control also involves storing irrigation water, controlling erosion and sediment, enhancing wildlife habitat, removing waterborne pollutants, and addressing aesthetic, and playability concerns. Keep in mind that not all stormwater on a golf course originates there; some may be from adjoining lands, including residential or commercial developments, yet the course must address control and cleansing of this water as it does water that originates on site.
Best Management Practices
Stormwater treatment is best accomplished by a “treatment train” approach, in which water is conveyed from one treatment to another by conveyances that themselves contribute to the treatment.
Eliminate or minimize as much directly connected impervious area (DCIA) as possible.
Use vegetated swales to slow and infiltrate water and trap pollutants in the soil, where they can be naturally destroyed by soil organisms.
Use depressed landscape islands in parking lots to catch, filter, and infiltrate water, instead of letting it run off. When hard rains occur, an elevated stormwater drain inlet allows the island to hold the treatment volume and settle out sediments, while allowing the overflow to drain away.
Maximize the use of pervious pavements, such as brick or concrete pavers separated by sand and planted with grass. Special high-permeability concrete is available for cart paths or parking lots.
Disconnect runoff from gutters and roof drains from impervious areas, so that it flows onto permeable areas that allow the water to infiltrate near the point of generation
Grow-In
The soil preparation, grassing and turf establishment phase is a critical element in the development process. The process to be undertaken to prepare the ground, install the turf, seed and establish the turf to a playable condition must be carefully planned to minimize environmental risk. Timing of grassing can be critical, with late summer and early fall being the best time to quickly establish turf in Connecticut with minimal input.
During the establishment phase, greater quantities of water and nutrients may be required than on a fully established course. Most projects use a combination of seed and newly imported sod. The selection of the most appropriate grass and starter fertilizer is a critical aspect of this process. Reference the National Turfgrass Evaluation Program for help with cultivar selection: http://www.ntep.org/
It is wise to seek advice from a regional USGA agronomist or a knowledgeable turfgrass consultant regarding the best varieties of grass to use based on an evaluation of soil conditions, watering capabilities and the expected level of maintenance. USGA research should be utilized to select the most drought and disease resistant cultivars. Adequate nitrogen and phosphorous are critical for rapid turf establishment and prevention of soil erosion. Soil testing should be conducted prior to planting to best determine the amount and types of nutrients required. Long-term potential issues such as weed encroachment, disease and drought susceptibility can be reduced with proper seedbed fertility. Where feasible, delivery of nutrients is best done through the irrigation system (fertigation) in small quantities at regular intervals to reduce the potential for runoff. Erosion barriers should remain in place through the soil preparation and grassing phase until full establishment of the turf.
Best Management Practices
The area to be established should be properly prepared with a suitable depth of growing medium for the turf. Soil in seeded areas should be loose enough to allow for good penetration of seed. Compacted areas should be loosened prior to planting.
Ensure erosion and sediment control devices are in place and properly maintained. Additional erosion devices or spreading of mulch may be necessary to slow runoff over the finely graded and smoothed ground surface. Sod should be top-dressed to fill in the gaps between sod pieces and rolled. This hastens establishment and provides a smoother surface.
Use appropriate seeding methods for the golf course’s conditions. If applying pre-plant fertilization to bare soil, it should only be done immediately prior to seeding to reduce the chance of nutrient movement should a rain event occur. When using sod, nutrient applications should be delayed until sod has sufficiently rooted.
Slow-release nitrogen or light, frequent soluble-nitrogen sources should be used during grow-in.
Nutrients should be applied, in either foliar or granular formulations, to the turf surface. Incorporating nutrients into the root zone does not result in more rapid establishment and increases environmental risk.
Apply phosphorus based on soil tests. Reduce phosphorus applications when possible.
Maintain unfertilized buffer strips between fertilized turf and water bodies.
Utilize vegetated containment areas for drain discharges.
Mow as soon as the sod has rooted, or when seedlings have reached a height of one-third greater than intended height-of-cut.
On newly seeded areas, irrigation should be applied lightly and frequently with the goal of keeping the soil damp but without runoff. Irrigation will become less frequent and heavier as the grass grows and thickens.
Remove erosion barriers only after the turf is fully established in the area being protected
Additional reference:
https://www.gcsaa.org/uploadedfiles/Environment/Get-Started/BMPs/Best-management-practices-for-golf-course-water-use-(CT).pdf
Landscape (non-play) areas are an essential part of the overall course design, providing enhanced course aesthetics, wildlife habitat, external sound/noise abatement, and natural cooling and freeze protection.
Landscape
An environmental landscape design approach addresses environmentally safe and energy-saving practices; therefore, environmentally sound landscape management is also, economically important. Non-play areas require a mix of sun and shade, optimal soil conditions and adequate canopy air movement to sustain growth and function.
Species Selection and Size Considerations
The fundamental principle for the environmentally sound management of landscapes is “right plant, right place.” The ideal plant from an environmental standpoint is the one that nature and evolution placed there. It has adapted specifically, to the soil, microclimate, rainfall, and light patterns, insects, and other pests, and endemic nutrient levels over thousands of years. Using native plantings will also improve diversity on the course (vegetation and animals), causing a more desirable experience and aesthetics. Utilize native perennial plantings whenever possible.
Over the years, a variety of non-native species (plants, animals, and other organisms) have been introduced to Connecticut. Non-native species are those that are alien to the ecosystem that they have been introduced into and whose introduction causes or is likely to cause harm to the environment or human health. Some non-native species exhibit an aggressive growth habit and can out-compete and displace native species. These are referred to as invasive species and they are a serious problem in Connecticut and elsewhere.
List of designated invasive plant species in Connecticut: https://cipwg.uconn.edu/invasive_plant_list/
Know the ultimate sizes and growth rates of trees, shrubs, and ground covers. This reduces the need for pruning and debris removal and lowers maintenance costs.
The addition of proper soil amendments can improve soil’s physical and chemical properties, increase its water-holding capacity, and reduce the leaching of fertilizers. Amendments may be organic or inorganic; however, soil microorganisms rapidly decompose organic amendments such as peat or compost. Soil testing should be done prior to planting to ensure that the selected plants will be planted in soil that is naturally compatible to the desired plants (i.e. proper pH, nutrient levels, wet versus dry tolerant, shaded versus full sun, etc.).
The goal of species-selection BMP is to maintain as close to a natural ecosystem as practical, while meeting the needs of a golf course.
Landscape areas should be fundamentally designed to facilitate rapid plant establishment to conserve water and lower nutritional input requirements once mature. Plants within areas that are not in play or are not critical to the design of the course may be removed and replanted with native plant material that requires little to no maintenance after establishment. Additionally, 50 percent to 70 percent of the out-of-play areas should remain in natural cover. As much natural vegetation as possible should be retained and enhanced through the supplemental planting of native trees, shrubs, and herbaceous vegetation to provide wildlife habitat in non-play areas, along with water sources to support fish and other water-dependent species. By leaving dead trees (snags) where they do not pose a hazard, a well-developed understory (brush and young trees), and native grasses, the amount of work needed to prepare a course is reduced while habitat for wildlife survival is maintained.
Best Management Practices
Base plant selection as close to a natural ecosystem as practical, while meeting the needs of the golf course. It has adapted specifically to the soil, microclimate, rainfall, light patterns, insects and other pests, and endemic nutrient levels over many years.
Select trees, plants, and grass species to attract birds seeking wild fruits, herbs, seeds, and insects.
Know the ultimate sizes and growth rates of trees, shrubs, and ground covers.
Use plants that are adapted for the site based on the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) cold-hardiness map: https://planthardiness.ars.usda.gov/PHZMWeb/
Select stress-tolerant species or cultivars to manage periodic dry/wet conditions. Choose the most stress-tolerant species or cultivar for a particular area.
Design and Function
Aesthetic gardens, window boxes, and container gardens should include a variety of plants of different heights that provide nectar for hummingbirds, butterflies, and other pollinators. Again, “right plant, right place” is the key to success.
Consider construction of pollinator gardens to increase native diversity and pollinator species on the course.
When integrating turf areas into the landscape around the clubhouse, entries, and other areas, design for ease of maintenance and keep in mind that turfgrasses grow best in sunny areas.
Garden plants, shrubbery, ground covers, or native plants may provide a pleasing a view and provide useful food, cover, or other environmental benefits to wildlife; they may also require reduced maintenance.
Well-designed forested buffers should contain a mixture of fast- and slow growing native trees, shrubs, and grasses to provide a diverse habitat for wildlife.
Trap and remove upland sources of sediments, nutrients, and chemicals through placement of forested buffers.
Use forested buffers to maintain a healthy riparian ecosystem and stable stream channel to protect fish and wildlife by supplying food, cover, and shade.
The ideal plant from an environmental standpoint is the one that nature and evolution placed there. It has adapted specifically to the soil, microclimate, rainfall, light patterns, insects, and other pests, and endemic nutrient levels over hundreds or thousands of generations.
Planting Methods
A BMP goal is to maintain as close to a natural ecosystem as practical, while meeting the needs of the golf course. Where factors have changed, the challenge is finding other suitable plants.
The use of organic mulches in gardens and aesthetic areas increases the moisture-holding capacity of plantings and prevents weed growth when applied in enough depth. Organic amendments are decomposed by soil microorganisms and add to soil tilth. Establishment of a healthy ground cover layer will reduce or even eliminate the need for repeated mulch applications. Keep mulch 2 to 3 inches away from plants, to prevent fungal growth from excess dampness. Excess mulch or compacted mulch may be detrimental, causing water to shed away from the root zone and encourage overwatering. Compaction or excessive mulch buildup should be avoided, especially when annual re-mulching is performed.
Best Management Practices
The plant palette and irrigation system should be appropriate for site conditions, considering that, in some cases, soil improvement can enhance water use efficiency.
Plants should be grouped together based on irrigation demand.
The percentage of landscaped area in irrigated high-water-use hydrozones should be minimized. Local government ordinances should address the percentage of irrigated landscaped area that may be included in high-water-use hydrozones. These high water-use limits should not apply to landscaped areas requiring large amounts of turf for their primary functions (for example, ball fields and playgrounds).
In most instances, established, drought-tolerant, native or naturalized landscape plants have a root system substantial enough to keep them alive with little or no supplemental irrigation.
Pruning and fertilizing will also benefit landscape plants while they are becoming established.
Add proper soil amendments in garden areas to improve the soil’s physical and chemical properties, increase its water-holding capacity, and reduce the leaching of fertilizers.
For information about developing a best management program for pollinators or establishing pollinator friendly gardens, please see the Pollinator section in this BMP manual.
Trees
Trees are an important and significant component of most American golf courses. They offer beauty to the landscape and strategy for golf holes by indicating the line of play, either through, around or over existing trees.
The correct placement and selection of species are paramount to having a successful tree program where golf strategy is complemented, and the trees grow healthy and thrive for decades with few pest problems. These end results are usually the outcome of using an educated, experienced professional to develop the planting plan.
Best Management Practices
Hire an arborist or tree specialist to aid in developing a planting plan.
Establish a tree care program using a licensed arborist.
For safety purposes use staff or an arborist for small scale pruning, pest management, and some tree removal. Use an outside professional tree service to handle large scale spray applications and removals that require climbing and bucket work.
Create a tree inventory. Include information regarding tree species; map of location; age; condition; life expectancy; monetary value.
Annually evaluate the condition of trees and make decisions regarding removals, pruning, thinning, fertility, pest control requirements.
Regular inspection for pruning requirements is important for safety purposes, and the health of the tree by removing dead, poorly attached, or overcrowded branches.
Most trees should be pruned during cool seasons of the year.
Use paint to improve the appearance of a wound when in a highly visible location.
To avoid excessive shade on turf surfaces, trees should be removed entirely or thinned through selective pruning to increase light penetration, especially around putting greens.
Tree canopy can be raised from the ground to improve air movement and light for better turf growth.
Trees and shrubs along streams provide temperature moderation through shade, which lowers water temperature in summer and increases it in winter.
Trees with very dense canopy can be crown thinned to increase light penetration and wind resistance.
Leave dead tree snags whenever possible for nesting and food source to wildlife. However, make sure that these snags are a safe distance away from playing surfaces should they get blown over.
Root pruning can be done with a trencher, vibratory plow, backhoe, or cutting saw to reduce competition for water between the turf versus trees.
Root pruning to a depth of 12-20” will sever the roots of most trees. Stay 1 foot in distance away from the tree for each inch in diameter at chest height. If the tree is moderately sized and healthy, a distance of 3 feet from the trunk can be used without seriously affecting the health of the tree.
Maintenance Facilities
Refer to the section “Maintenance Operations” for more detail regarding the maintenance facility design, construction, and operations.
Wildlife Considerations
Refer to the section “Pollinator Protection and Wildlife Habitats” for more detail regarding wildlife considerations.
Irrigation
For information about planning, installing, and maintaining an irrigation system, please refer to the “Irrigation” section.
Surface Water Management and Water Quality Monitoring and Management
For information about surface water management and protecting water quality, please refer to the “Surface and Stormwater Management” section.
